托福听力：艺术史背景知识绝佳素材，看完记得收藏！
近期，上海博物馆推出了“从波提切利到梵高”为主题的英国国家美术馆珍藏展，展出的作品从15世纪到18世纪，跨越300年，按照时间顺序共分8个部分，呈现了壮观的欧洲绘画史。
小编发现这些内容叙述，无论是历史背景（文艺复兴，宗教改革），绘画风格（自然主义，巴洛克，洛可可，印象派，后印象派等），还是各位画家的名字和作品，都经常出现在托福听力讲座中，所以是不可多得的艺术史背景素材，特整理出来供大家学习使用。
英文叙述中的重点都用了不同颜色进行了标注，蓝色是画家名字，橙色是绘画风格描述，加粗是重点词汇。有了人名，词汇和背景知识积累，托福听力艺术史讲座就没那么难了。
Enjoy it！
01
波提切利和15世纪意大利绘画
Bottticelli and painting in fifteenth-century Italy
Painting flourished in fifteenth-century Italy, particularly in Venice and Florence, where two distinct practices emerged. Venetian artists such as Giovanni Bellini explored naturalism and colour (colore), informed by their use of oil painting and adoption of influences from northern Europe. In central Italy, where fresco (wall painting on plaster with quick-drying egg tempera pigments) was frequently used, line and composition (disegno) were privileged – especially in Florence, where Botticelli emerged as one of the greatest painters of the age.
绘画在15世纪的意大利全盛发展，尤其在威尼斯和佛罗伦萨，诞生了两个截然不同的流派。以乔瓦尼 •贝利尼为代表的威尼斯画派艺术家们崇尚自然主义，善用色彩，汲取欧洲北方艺术经验，并付诸到创作中。在湿壁画（一种使用快干蛋彩画颜料在灰泥上进行创作的墙壁绘画）盛行的意大利中部，线条和结构更为艺术家们所看重，特别是在佛罗伦萨，出现了波提切利这位当时被誉为最好的画家。
Although art during this period remained largely in the service of the Church, new patrons, subjects and styles began to emerge. A group of thinkers known as humanists sought to reinstate classical antiquity as the pre-eminent ideal for life and art. This self-conscious movement, known as the Renaissance, heralded a rebirth of interest in classical art and culture. Looking back to the art and texts of ancient Rome, fifteenth-century Italian artists began to paint classical gods and goddesses, lifelike portraiture and scenes from ancient history and mythology for their cultured urban patrons. New notes of austerity in religious art, prompted by Church reform counterbalanced and complemented this revival of antique forms.
尽管这一时期的艺术主要为教会服务，但新的赞助人、创作主题和艺术风格开始萌芽。一批被称为人文主义者的思想家试图恢复古典传统，认为这才是理想化生活和艺术的典范。这场被称为 “文艺复兴”的自我觉醒运动预示着古典艺术与文化的再次兴盛。15世纪意大利艺术家回顾了古罗马艺术和文学，开始为那些有文化的赞助人描绘古典神像，创作栩栩如生的肖像画以及重现一些古代历史和神话场景。在宗教改革的推动下，宗教艺术风格变得更为朴实，在某种程度上平衡了古典形式的复兴。
盛泽诺比乌斯的三个奇迹 —波提切利
02
拉斐尔和意大利文艺复兴盛期
Raphael and the Italian High Renaissance
The first quarter of the sixteenth century was a period of almost constant warfare in Italy. However, it was during this extremely turbulent period that the harmonious, highly controlled and classically balanced art of the High Renaissance came into being.
16世纪初期，意大利经历了接连起伏的战争。然而，正是在这种极端动荡的时期，文艺复兴盛期中和谐、精准把控且与古典平衡的艺术才得以形成。
Renaissance, meaning 'rebirth', is used to describe the rediscovery and revival of interest in the art, architecture and literary culture of ancient Greece and Rome. In Italy, this movement took hold from the late fourteenth century and culminated in the early sixteenth century. Artists turned to mathematics to master linear perspective, anatomy to accurately represent the human body and classical art and texts for inspiration.
文艺复兴，意为“重生”，指对古希腊和古罗马艺术、建筑和文学的再度发现和兴趣重燃。在意大利，这一运动始于14世纪末，至16世纪初期时达到顶峰。艺术家们通过数学来掌握线性透视法，熟悉解剖学以求准确表现人体，研究古典艺术和文学以获灵感。
The greatest artists of this most celebrated period of Italian art were Leonardo, Michelangelo, Raphael and Titian. They achieved a completely new status, lauded for their 'divine' powers as artists rather than mere craftsmen, their extraordinary abilities across a range of art forms and disciplines and their uniquely personal vision and technique. Creating religious art, portraits, historical and mythological paintings (frequently sculpture and architecture too), often for an international clientele, their huge influence on their peers, pupils and subsequent artists cannot be overestimated. Titian did more than any other sixteenth-century artist to exploit the expressive possibilities of oil paint on canvas. Highly talented contemporaries such as Tintoretto, Giovanni Battista Moroni (1520/4-1579), Correggio (active 1494; died 1534) and Damiano Mazza (active 1573) developed their own styles in reference and counterpoint to the work of these artistic giants.
这一时期意大利最伟大的艺术家包括达•芬奇、米开朗基罗、拉斐尔以及提香。他们获得全新的地位，受到极高赞誉，不再仅仅是画匠，而是带有“神圣”力量的艺术家。他们在不同形式和学科中表现出非凡能力，在作品中呈现出强烈的个人特色和超高技艺，为一些国际客户创作宗教艺术、肖像画、历史和神话绘画（通常包括雕塑和建筑），其艺术造诣对同时代及后世艺术家们产生了巨大影响。提香比其他16世纪艺术家更善于发掘颜料在画布上的表现力，而同时期有许多才华洋溢的艺术家，如丁托列托、乔瓦尼．巴蒂斯塔 •莫罗尼、柯勒乔以及达米亚诺．马扎，他们在借鉴艺术巨匠作品的基础上，也发展出了自己的风格。
圣母子与施洗者圣约翰（加瓦圣母）——拉斐尔
03
戈塞特和北方文艺复兴
Gossaert and the Northern Renaissance
It was not until the early fifteenth century in the Low Countries that artists began to exploit the possibilities of painting in thin translucent glazes of oil paint, enabling them to depict the real world with incredible detail, precision and a jewel-like saturation of colour. The invention of this technique revolutionised painting in Europe. The naturalism with which early Netherlandish painters depicted the visible world was an expression of God, imbuing their works with spiritual significance and symbolism.
直到15世纪初，北方低地国家的艺术家们才开始用轻薄的半透明油画颜料进行绘画创作，新材质使他们能够更精准地描绘出真实世界的细节，呈现宝石般的明亮色彩。这项技术的革新彻底改变了欧洲绘画的进程。早期尼德兰画家用自然主义手法描绘可见的世界，这是“上帝的表达”，并赋予他们的作品以精神意义和象征意义。
The Reformation (from 1517), which led to certain European states breaking from the Roman Catholic Church in favour of a reformed Christianity, Protestantism, reduced the number of religious paintings produced in Protestant countries, but capitalised on mass-produced printmaking to bring its theology to the people. Artists of the northern European Renaissance turned to a wide variety of religious and secular subject matter, including landscape, portraiture, still life and subjects from daily life.
宗教改革（始于1517年）导致某些欧洲国家脱离罗马天主教，转而支持改革后的基督教新教，这些国家减少了宗教绘画数量，但利用大规模生产的版画，将神学教义传播到人群中。北方文艺复兴时期的艺术家们致力于各种各样的宗教和世俗绘画创作，包括风景、肖像、静物和日常生活题材。
Northern Renaissance artists such as Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528) and Hans Holbein were particularly interested in the realism of early Netherlandish painting with its strikingly lifelike figures, realistic interiors and fabrics rendered in astonishingly convincing detail, but also increasingly looked to Renaissance Italy and the art and themes of classical antiquity. One of the most accomplished painters of the northern Renaissance, who combined many of these elements in his work, was Jan Gossaert.
以阿尔布雷希特•丟勒（1471-1528）和汉斯．荷尔拜因为代表的北方文艺复兴艺术家对早期尼德兰绘画中的现实主义尤感兴趣，擅长呈现栩栩如生的人物，逼真的内饰和织物，描绘令人惊叹的细节。同时他们也越来越关注文艺复兴时期意大利以及古典传统的艺术和主题。北方文艺复兴时期最有造诣的画家之一是扬•戈塞特，他将这些丰富的元素巧妙地结合在自己的作品创作中。
04
卡拉瓦乔和意大利及西班牙的巴洛克绘画
Caravaggio and Baroque painting in Italy and Spain
Paintings made during the baroque period are characterised by dynamic compositions, a vivid use of colour and intense expression of emotion. The term 'baroque' was originally derogatory, implying irregularity and excess, and may be derived from the Portuguese word barroco, meaning a flawed pearl. Baroque art developed alongside the Counter-Reformation, a period of resurgence and reform of the Catholic Church in response to the Protestant Reformation.
巴洛克时期的绘画特点包括动态的构图、生动的色彩和强烈的情感表达。“巴洛克”（baroque）一词最初带有贬义，指不规则和过度，可能源于葡萄牙语单词“barroco”，意为有缺陷的珍珠。巴洛克艺术伴随着反宗教改革同步发展起来，这是天主教会为回应宗教改革而进行的复兴改革运动。
The leading Italian baroque painters Caravaggio and Annibale Carracci both looked to the world around them for inspiration. While Annibale Carracci idealised nature to create works based on the classical examples of antiquity and the High Renaissance, Caravaggio introduced a radical new style with powerfully naturalistic figures, lit dramatically and with a strong physical presence. This new 'Caravaggesque' style, considered shocking by some, spread quickly across Europe.
意大利巴洛克代表画家卡拉瓦乔和阿尼巴尔 •卡拉奇都从现实世界中寻求艺术灵感。卡拉奇试图将自然理想化，在古典时期和文艺复兴盛期经典作品的基础上进行创作；而卡拉瓦乔则引入了一种激进的新风格，呈现强有力的自然主义人物形象，并擅长运用戏剧化的光线，使人物具有强烈的身体存在感。这种崭新的“卡拉瓦乔式〞风格在当时引起很大的反响，很快在欧洲传播开来。
During the seventeenth century, Italy became home to painters from all over the European continent, especially from France: Poussin and Claude spent most of their careers there. Poussin' s restrained paintings, inspired by antiquity, proved popular with erudite patrons in Rome and Paris. Claude was largely responsible for the elevation of the genre of landscape painting in western European art.
17世纪，意大利成为了来自欧洲大陆的画家，尤其是法国画家的家园：普桑和克芳德的大部分职业生涯在那儿度过。普桑受古典传统启发，画风朴素克制，在罗马和巴黎深受博学的赞助人的喜爱；克劳德则在很大程度上提升了欧洲艺术中的风景画流派。
In Spain, the royal court painter Velázquez developed a sophisticated painting technique of loose, confident brushwork inspired by his travels in Italy. The powerful and expressive baroque style, exemplified by Caravaggioand developed in Spain by Velázquez, perfectly matched the intensity of devotion called for by the Counter-Reformation Church.
西班牙宫廷画家委拉斯贵兹受到意大利之旅的启发，从而发展出了一种松散又自信的绘画技巧。强烈而富于表现力的巴洛克风格以卡拉瓦乔为代表，并由委拉斯贵兹在西班牙发展起来，与反宗教改革运动提倡的信条完美契合。
05
伦勃朗和17世纪欧洲北方绘画
Rembrandt and seventeenth-century painting in Northern Europe
The Dutch Republic was extremely important in the intellectual and artistic life of seventeenth-century Europe. In the later sixteenth century, the seven territories known as the United Provinces broke away from Spanish rule in a struggle for religious as well as civic liberty. Although they effectively formed an independent state, they were officially granted independence from Spain only in 1648. The new Protestant upper class, made up of merchants, shippers, bankers and manufacturers, commissioned secular paintings to decorate their homes.
荷兰共和国对17世纪欧洲文化与艺术的发展极为重要。16世纪后期，七个被称为“联省”的地区为争得宗教和公民自由而反抗西班牙的统治，尽管他们卓有成效地形成了一个独立国家，但直到1648年才正式脱离西班牙，获得独立。这一时期，由商人、船商、银行家和制造商组成的新教上层阶级开始委托艺术家创作世俗主题的绘画来装饰他们的家园。
Frans Hals (about 1581/5-1666), one of the most prominent Dutch artists, specialised in broadly painted portraits and pictures of figures from contemporary life. Rembrandt, whose rough painting technique astonished his contemporaries, was also much in demand as a portraitist. Before long, however, newly wealthy citizens wanted more highly finished and heroic images of themselves.
弗兰斯 •哈尔斯（约1581/5-1666年）是荷兰最杰出的艺术家之一，专业从事肖像和当代人物绘画。伦勃朗以粗犷的笔触令世人惊喜，他的肖像画也广受欢迎。然而不久之后，新兴富裕的市民阶层开始偏好完美的英雄形象，
The Flemish artist Anthony van Dyck had established himself as one of the most influential Flemish artist and diplomat Peter Paul Rubens, Van Dyck was the painter par excellence of silk and satin, delighting in the rich colours and fabrics worn by his aristocratic sitters. By contrast, Rembrandt was more interested in the possibilities of the paint medium, describing faces — often his own — with light, shadow and texture.
佛兰德艺术家安东尼•凡 •代克迎合了潮流趋势，从而成为17世纪北欧最有影响力的肖像画家之一，他也曾担任佛兰德艺术家及外交官彼得 •保罗 •鲁本斯的助手。凡 •代克擅长描绘丝绸和缎子，对贵族服饰丰富多彩的颜色和织物质地很感兴趣。相较之下，伦勃朗更偏好探索不同绘画媒介带来的可能性，他常用层次丰富的光线、阴影和纹理来描绘人物面部，最常描绘的便是他自己的面部。
Typical of the Dutch 'Golden Age' are the scenes of domestic life painted by Jan Steen (1626-1670)d and Pieter de Hooch (1629-after 1684). Johannes Vermeer (1632-1675) also specialised in genre pictures, painting domestic interiors with an extreme sensitivity to the rendering of light. The period produced some of the greatest landscape and marine painters in western art. Aelbert Cuyp recorded the great skies, working landscapes and calm waters of the Low Countries. Willem van de Velde and his father were masters of marine painting, rendering shipping with incredible accuracy, and eventually moving to England to create seascapes for Charles II (1630-1685).
荷兰“黄金时代”的典型艺术形式是类似扬 • 斯汀（1626-1670）和彼得•德•霍赫（1629-1684年后）常描绘家庭生活场景。约翰内斯 •维米尔(1632-1675）擅长作风俗画，在绘制室内场景时表现出了对光线渲染的极度敏感。这一时期也产生了一些欧洲艺术中最伟大的风景和海洋画家。阿尔伯特•寇普用画笔记录了低地地区壮丽的天空和平静的水域。小威廉•凡 •德 •维尔德和他的父亲都是海洋绘画大师，以令人难以置信的精准度绘制船舶。他们最终移居英国，为查理二世（1630-1685）创作了许多海景画。
The interior of an Inn ("The broken Eggs") —Jan Steen
06
卡纳莱托和18世纪欧洲绘画 Canaletto and European painting in the eighteenth century
The eighteenth century was the age of the Grand Tour, a custom whereby wealthy young men travelled through Europe, mainly to Italy, to complete their education. They looked at the art of the past and commissioned new works, which included portraits by Pompeo Girolamo Batoni (1708-1787) and views, both real and imaginary, by (amongst others) Claude-Joseph Vernet (1714-1789) and Canaletto (1697-1768). The Grand Tour had a profound effect on British culture and played a formative role in shaping the nation's art collections.
18世纪是欧洲的“壮游”时代，这时富裕的年轻人开始游历整个欧洲，主要前往意大利去完成学业。他们时常研究过去的艺术，并委托艺术家创作全新作品，其中包括庞贝奥．吉罗拉莫•巴托尼（1708-1787）的肖像画，克劳德一约瑟夫 • 韦尔内（1714-1789）和卡纳莱托（1697-1768）亦真亦幻的风景画。“壮游”对英国文化产生了深远影响，并在塑造其艺术收藏方面发挥了重要作用。
Aristocratic travellers returned home and remodelled their country houses and gardens to resemble the idealised Italianate landscapes painted by Claude and Poussin which they had brought back with them from Rome. By contrast, Spanish art was not truly discovered by the British until the early nineteenth century: the striking portrait of Isabel de Porcel by Francisco de Goya (1746-1828) was among the first pictures by the artist to enter the National Gallery's collection. France saw the emergence of the spontaneous, novel and sensuous rococo style. It reflected the contemporary divide between painters of the French Academy, who privileged drawing and the scholarly classicism of Poussin, from those who favoured colour, admiring Rubens and the great sixteenth-century Venetian painters. The rococo style inspired artists as diverse as Greuze, Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788) and Goya and spread to Germany and Italy, where the Venetian painters Giambattista Tiepolo (1696-1770) and Pietro Longhi (1701-1785) infused it with sparkling visual wit. From the 1750s, however, reaction against the Rococo resulted in a return to the pure, idealistic, sculptural forms of antiquity.
贵族旅行者返回家园，效仿克劳德和普桑笔下理想化的意大利风景，重新修葺他们的乡间别墅和花园。相较之下，西班牙艺术直到19世纪初才真正被英国人发现：弗朗西斯科 •德 •戈雅（1746-1828）的《多娜 • 伊莎贝尔 • 德•波赛尔》肖像画是该艺术家最早被纳入英国国家美术馆收藏的作品之一。法国在这一时期出现了新颖而又感性的洛可可风格，反映了当时法兰西学院画家之间的分歧，他们中有推崇以普桑为代表的学术古典主义，另一些则更偏好丰富的色彩，崇拜鲁本斯和16世纪伟大的威尼斯画家。洛可可风格激发了格勒兹、托马斯•庚斯博罗和戈雅等不同艺术家们的灵感，并传播至德国和意大利。威尼斯画家吉安巴蒂斯塔 •蒂波罗（1696-1770）和彼得罗•朗吉在洛可可风格上又加入了一些视觉幽默元素。然而在18世纪50年代，又出现了反对洛可可画派的风潮，人们希望回归到纯粹的、理想主义的、雕塑式的古代艺术形式。
07
梵高和印象派绘画 Van Gogh and the Impressionists
The Impressionists were a loosely associated group of artists working in Paris in the late nineteenth century. The term 'Impressionist' was first used as an insult in response to an exhibition of their work in 1874. The movement's chief exponents — Manet, Cézanne, Renoir and Monet — typically incorporated visible brushstrokes of bright colours, emphasising the effects of changing light, and frequently painted unconventional subject matter drawn from modern life. Working during the advent of photography, their informal compositions can resemble 'snapshots' taken by a camera. They often began their paintings out-of-doors, directly in front of the motif, responding with immediacy and spontaneity to their everyday surroundings.
印象派是指19世纪末在巴黎活动的一个松散的艺术家群体。“印象派”一词最初带有贬义，首次出现在1874年的一场展览上，用以描述这个群体的作品。印象派的主要代表人物为马奈、塞尚、雷诺阿和莫奈等，他们在创作中通常采用明亮的色彩，强调光影变化效果，并经常关注现代生活中的非传统题材。在摄影技术出现期间，他们的作画模式类似于相机拍摄的 “快照”。印象派画家通常在户外作画，直接面对主题进行创作，记录下对周围环境产生的即时而自然的感受。
In later life Monet retreated to Giverny in northern France where he built a large studio and cultivated a water garden with over two hundred different varieties of iris — the inspiration for some of his largest and most expressive late paintings. Gauguin and Van Gogh, who enjoyed a tumultuous friendship, are today the most popular Post-Impressionist painters, though neither was appreciated during their lifetimes. Gauguin greatly admired Cézanne and sought to emulate his more structural approach in his work, whereas Van Gogh' s dazzling use of colour and lively brushstrokesare intended to give a strong sense both of nature' s vitality and the unique personality of the artist.
莫奈在晚期时隐居到法国北部的吉维尼，在那里建造一个大型工作室，并培育了拥有200多种鸢尾花的水上花园，它们成为画家晚期一些富有表现力的大尺幅画作的灵感来源。高更和梵高之间的友谊非常浓烈，他们是当今最受欢迎的后印象派画家，尽管在世时都没有受到赏识。高更非常仰慕塞尚，试图在自己的作品中模仿其极具结构性的技法；而梵高对色彩令人赞叹不已的运用及其生动活泼的笔触，给人以一种强烈的自然活力和艺术家独特的个性特色。
Irises —Claude Monet
Long grass with butterflies — Vincent van Gogh
08
透纳和英国绘画 Turner and painting in Britain
During the eighteenth century Britain began to reclaim the leading position England had enjoyed in European art during the medieval period. The training of artists began to improve, and during the early nineteenth century public museums and galleries such as the National Gallery were founded, making art accessible to all for enjoyment and study, especially in London.
18世纪时，英国开始恢复曾在中世纪欧洲艺术占有一席之地的领先地位。对艺术家的培训开始得到改善，在19世纪初期，英国国家美术馆等一批公共博物馆机构相继成立，使所有人都能欣赏和学习艺术，尤其是在伦敦地区。
British art of this time is especially strong in the genres of portraiture and landscape. Continuing in the tradition set by Van Dyck and other great portraitists of the seventeenth century. Gainsborough, Reynolds and Lawrence specialised in portraying fashionable and distinguished members of British society on a grand scale.
这一时期的英国艺术以肖像画和风景画最为突出。庚斯博罗、雷诺兹和劳伦斯延续了凡•代克和17世纪其他伟大肖像画家的传统，致力于大规模地描绘英国社会中时尚又显贵的人物。
Constable developed a highly innovative approach to landscape painting, whilst always looking back to the art of the past. Determined to capture the beauty of his native Suffolk countryside before it was changed forever by industrialisation, Constable created monumental, naturalistic canvases of views he had known since boyhood. Turner, by contrast, was fascinated by modern progress and included new technology such as steam trains and tugboats in his landscapes and seascapes. However, he incorporated these modern subjects in a new style of art that was rooted in tradition. Drawing on his knowledge of Dutch Golden Age marine painting and his admiration for the seventeenth-century French painter Claude, Turner produced landscapes in which the poetic effects of light, atmosphere and weather predominate.
康斯特布尔常常借鉴过去的艺术形式，并发展出一种高度创新的风景画方法。他决心在工业化永远改变萨福克乡村之前，用画笔来捕捉家乡的美丽风光，他描绘了许多儿时熟悉的景色，创作出具有纪念意义的自然主义油画。相比之下，透纳则对现代化进程十分着迷，在他的风景和海景画中纳入蒸汽火车和拖船等新技术元素，并成功地将这些现代主题融入植根于传统的新艺术风格。透纳熟悉荷兰黄金时代海洋绘画，并对17世纪法国画家克劳德非常钦佩，使其笔下的风景画充满了以光、氛围和天气为主导的诗意效果。
从15世纪的文艺复兴到18世纪的英国绘画约300年的欧洲绘画史总结就到这里了，希望对大家有所帮助，喜欢的请点赞收藏并加关注。
注：以上文字和图片均来自上海博物馆展览厅
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